MISTERI PURAMIDA MESIR

 






Piramida raksasa Mesir merupakan salah satu dari tujuh keajaiban dunia saat ini, sejak dulu dipandang sebagai bangunan yang misterius dan megah oleh orang-orang. Namun, meskipun telah berlalu berapa tahun lamanya, setelah sarjana dan ahli menggunakan sejumlah besar alat peneliti yang akurat dan canggih, masih belum diketahui, siapakah sebenarnya yang telah membuat bangunan raksasa yang tinggi dan megah itu? Dan berasal dari kecerdasan manusia manakah prestasi yang tidak dapat dibayangkan di atas bangunan itu? Serta apa tujuannya membuat bangunan tersebut? Dan pada waktu itu ia memiliki kegunaan yang bagaimana atau apa artinya? Teka-teki yang terus berputar di dalam benak semua orang selama ribuan tahun, dari awal hingga akhir merupakan misteri yang tidak dapat dijelaskan. Meskipun sejarawan mengatakan ia didirikan pada tahun 2000 lebih SM, namun pendapat yang demikian malah tidak bisa menjelaskan kebimbangan yang diinisiasikan oleh sejumlah besar penemuan hasil penelitian.
Sejarah Mitos dan Temuan Arkeologi
Sejak abad ke-6 SM, Mesir merupakan tempat pelarian kerajaan Poshi, yang kehilangan kedudukannya setelah berdiri lebih dari 2.000 tahun, menerima kekuasaan yang berasal dari luar yaitu kerajaan Yunani, Roma, kerajaan Islam serta kekuasaan bangsa lain. Semasa itu sejumlah besar karya terkenal zaman Firaun dihancurkan, aksara dan kepercayaan agama bangsa Mesir sendiri secara berangsur-angsur digantikan oleh budaya lain, sehingga kebudayaan Mesir kuno menjadi surut dan hancur, generasi belakangan juga kehilangan sejumlah besar peninggalan yang dapat menguraikan petunjuk yang ditinggalkan oleh para pendahulu.
Tahun 450 SM, setelah seorang sejarawan Yunani berkeliling dan tiba di Mesir, membubuhkan tulisan: Cheops, (aksara Yunani Khufu), konon katanya, hancur setelah 50 tahun. Dalam batas tertentu sejarawan Yunani tersebut menggunakan kalimat "konon katanya", maksudnya bahwa kebenarannya perlu dibuktikan lagi. Namun, sejak itu pendapat sejarawan Yunani tersebut malah menjadi kutipan generasi belakangan sebagai bukti penting bahwa piramida didirikan pada dinasti kerajaan ke-4.
Selama ini, para sejarawan menganggap bahwa piramida adalah makam raja. Dengan demikian, begitu membicarakan piramida, yang terbayang dalam benak secara tanpa disadari adalah perhiasan dan barang-barang yang gemerlap. Dan, pada tahun 820 M, ketika gubernur jenderal Islam Kairo yaitu Khalifah Al-Ma'mun memimpin pasukan, pertama kali menggali jalan rahasia dan masuk ke piramida, dan ketika dengan tidak sabar masuk ke ruangan, pemandangan yang terlihat malah membuatnya sangat kecewa. Bukan saja tidak ada satu pun benda yang biasanya dikubur bersama mayat, seperti mutiara, maupun ukiran, bahkan sekeping serpihan pecah belah pun tidak ada, yang ada hanya sebuah peti batu kosong yang tidak ada penutupnya. Sedangkan tembok pun hanya bidang yang bersih kosong, juga tak ada sedikit pun ukiran tulisan.
Kesimpulan para sejarawan terhadap prestasi pertama kali memasuki piramida ini adalah "mengalami perampokan benda-benda dalam makam". Namun, hasil penyelidikan nyata menunjukkan, kemungkinan pencuri makam masuk ke piramida melalui jalan lainnya adalah sangat kecil sekali. Di bawah kondisi biasa, pencuri makam juga tidak mungkin dapat mencuri tanpa meninggalkan jejak sedikit pun, dan lebih tidak mungkin lagi menghapus seluruh prasasti Firaun yang dilukiskan di atas tembok. Dibanding dengan makam-makam lain yang umumnya dipenuhi perhiasan-perhiasan dan harta karun yang berlimpah ruah, piramida raksasa yang dibangun untuk memperingati keagungan raja Firaun menjadi sangat berbeda.
Selain itu, dalam catatan "Inventory Stela" yang disimpan di dalam museum Kairo, pernah disinggung bahwa piramida telah ada sejak awal sebelum Khufu meneruskan takhta kerajaan. Namun, oleh karena catatan pada batu prasasti tersebut secara keras menantang pandangan tradisional, terdapat masalah antara hasil penelitian para ahli dan cara penulisan pada buku, selanjutnya secara keras mengecam nilai penelitiannya. Sebenarnya dalam keterbatasan catatan sejarah yang bisa diperoleh, jika karena pandangan tertentu lalu mengesampingkan sebagian bukti sejarah, tanpa disadari telah menghambat kita secara obyektif dalam memandang kedudukan sejarah yang sebenarnya.
Teknik Bangunan yang Luar Biasa
Di Mesir, terdapat begitu banyak piramida berbagai macam ukuran, standarnya bukan saja jauh lebih kecil, strukturnya pun kasar. Di antaranya piramida yang didirikan pada masa kerajaan ke-5 dan 6, banyak yang sudah rusak dan hancur, menjadi timbunan puing, seperti misalnya piramida Raja Menkaure seperti pada gambar. Kemudian, piramida besar yang dibangun pada masa yang lebih awal, dalam sebuah gempa bumi dahsyat pada abad ke-13, di mana sebagian batu ditembok sebelah luar telah hancur, namun karena bagian dalam ditunjang oleh tembok penyangga, sehingga seluruh strukturnya tetap sangat kuat. Karenanya, ketika membangun piramida raksasa, bukan hanya secara sederhana menyusun 3 juta batu menjadi bentuk kerucut, jika terdapat kekurangan pada rancangan konstruksi yang khusus ini, sebagian saja yang rusak, maka bisa mengakibatkan seluruhnya ambruk karena beratnya beban yang ditopang.
Lagi pula, bagaimanakah proyek bangunan piramida raksasa itu dikerjakan, tetap merupakan topik yang membuat pusing para sarjana. Selain mempertimbangkan sejumlah besar batu dan tenaga yang diperlukan, faktor terpenting adalah titik puncak piramida harus berada di bidang dasar tepat di titik tengah 4 sudut atas. Karena jika ke-4 sudutnya miring dan sedikit menyimpang, maka ketika menutup titik puncak tidak mungkin menyatu di satu titik, berarti proyek bangunan ini dinyatakan gagal. Karenanya, merupakan suatu poin yang amat penting, bagaimanakah meletakkan sejumlah 2,3 juta -2,6 juta buah batu besar yang setiap batunya berbobot 2,5 ton dari permukaan tanah hingga setinggi lebih dari seratus meter di angkasa dan dipasang dari awal sampai akhir pada posisi yang tepat.
Seperti yang dikatakan oleh pengarang Graham Hancock dalam karangannya "Sidik Jari Tuhan": Di tempat yang terhuyung-huyung ini, di satu sisi harus menjaga keseimbangan tubuh, dan sisi lainnya harus memindahkan satu demi satu batu yang paling tidak beratnya 2 kali lipat mobil kecil ke atas, diangkut ke tempat yang tepat, dan mengarah tepat pada tempatnya, entah apa yang ada dalam pikiran pekerja-pekerja pengangkut batu tersebut. Meskipun ilmu pengetahuan modern telah memperkirakan berbagai macam cara dan tenaga yang memungkinkan untuk membangun, namun jika dipertimbangkan lagi kondisi riilnya, akan kita temukan bahwa orang-orang tersebut tentunya memiliki kemampuan atau kekuatan fisik yang melebihi manusia biasa, baru bisa menyelesaikan proyek raksasa tersebut serta memastikan keakuratan maupun ketepatan presisinya.
Terhadap hal ini, Jean Francois Champollion yang mendapat sebutan sebagai "Bapak Pengetahuan Mesir Kuno Modern" memperkirakan bahwa orang yang mendirikan piramida berbeda dengan manusia sekarang, paling tidak dalam "pemikiran mereka mempunyai tinggi tubuh 100 kaki yang tingginya sama seperti manusia raksasa". Ia berpendapat, dilihat dari sisi pembuatan piramida, itu adalah hasil karya manusia raksasa.
Senada dengan itu, Master Li Hongzhi dalam ceramahnya pada keliling Amerika Utara tahun 2002 juga pernah menyinggung kemungkinan itu. "Manusia tidak dapat memahami bagaimana piramida dibuat. Batu yang begitu besar bagaimana manusia mengangkutnya? Beberapa orang manusia raksasa yang tingginya lima meter mengangkut sesuatu, itu dengan manusia sekarang memindahkan sebuah batu besar adalah sama. Untuk membangun piramida itu, manusia setinggi lima meter sama seperti kita sekarang membangun sebuah gedung besar."
Pemikiran demikian mau tidak mau membuat kita membayangkan, bahwa piramida raksasa dan sejumlah besar bangunan batu raksasa kuno yang ditemukan di berbagai penjuru dunia telah mendatangkan keraguan yang sama kepada semua orang: tinggi besar dan megah, terbentuk dengan menggunakan susunan batu yang sangat besar, bahkan penyusunannya sangat sempurna. Seperti misalnya, di pinggiran kota utara Mexico ada Kastil Sacsahuaman yang disusun dengan batu raksasa yang beratnya melebihi 100 ton lebih, di antaranya ada sebuah batu raksasa yang tingginya mencapai 28 kaki, diperkirakan beratnya mencapai 360 ton (setara dengan 500 buah mobil keluarga). Dan di dataran barat daya Inggris terdapat formasi batu raksasa, dikelilingi puluhan batu raksasa dan membentuk sebuah bundaran besar, di antara beberapa batu tingginya mencapai 6 meter. Sebenarnya, sekelompok manusia yang bagaimanakah mereka itu? Mengapa selalu menggunakan batu raksasa, dan tidak menggunakan batu yang ukurannya dalam jangkauan kemampuan kita untuk membangun?
Sphinx, singa bermuka manusia yang juga merupakan obyek penting dalam penelitian ilmuwan, tingginya 20 meter, panjang keseluruhan 73 meter, dianggap didirikan oleh kerjaan Firaun ke-4 yaitu Khafre. Namun, melalui bekas yang dimakan karat (erosi) pada permukaan badan Sphinx, ilmuwan memperkirakan bahwa masa pembuatannya mungkin lebih awal, paling tidak 10 ribu tahun silam sebelum Masehi.
Seorang sarjana John Washeth juga berpendapat: Bahwa Piramida raksasa dan tetangga dekatnya yaitu Sphinx dengan bangunan masa kerajaan ke-4 lainnya sama sekali berbeda, ia dibangun pada masa yang lebih purbakala dibanding masa kerajaan ke-4. Dalam bukunya "Ular Angkasa", John Washeth mengemukakan: perkembangan budaya Mesir mungkin bukan berasal dari daerah aliran sungai Nil, melainkan berasal dari budaya yang lebih awal dan hebat yang lebih kuno ribuan tahun dibanding Mesir kuno, warisan budaya yang diwariskan yang tidak diketahui oleh kita. Ini, selain alasan secara teknologi bangunan yang diuraikan sebelumnya, dan yang ditemukan di atas yaitu patung Sphinx sangat parah dimakan karat juga telah membuktikan hal ini.
Ahli ilmu pasti Swalle Rubich dalam "Ilmu Pengetahuan Kudus" menunjukkan: pada tahun 11.000 SM, Mesir pasti telah mempunyai sebuah budaya yang hebat. Pada saat itu Sphinx telah ada, sebab bagian badan singa bermuka manusia itu, selain kepala, jelas sekali ada bekas erosi. Perkiraannya adalah pada sebuah banjir dahsyat tahun 11.000 SM dan hujan lebat yang silih berganti lalu mengakibatkan bekas erosi.
Perkiraan erosi lainnya pada Sphinx adalah air hujan dan angin. Washeth mengesampingkan dari kemungkinan air hujan, sebab selama 9.000 tahun di masa lalu dataran tinggi Jazirah, air hujan selalu tidak mencukupi, dan harus melacak kembali hingga tahun 10000 SM baru ada cuaca buruk yang demikian. Washeth juga mengesampingkan kemungkinan tererosi oleh angin, karena bangunan batu kapur lainnya pada masa kerajaan ke-4 malah tidak mengalami erosi yang sama. Tulisan berbentuk gajah dan prasasti yang ditinggalkan masa kerajaan kuno tidak ada sepotong batu pun yang mengalami erosi yang parah seperti yang terjadi pada Sphinx.
Profesor Universitas Boston, dan ahli dari segi batuan erosi Robert S. juga setuju dengan pandangan Washeth sekaligus menujukkan: Bahwa erosi yang dialami Sphinx, ada beberapa bagian yang kedalamannya mencapai 2 meter lebih, sehingga berliku-liku jika dipandang dari sudut luar, bagaikan gelombang, jelas sekali merupakan bekas setelah mengalami tiupan dan terpaan angin yang hebat selama ribuan tahun.
Washeth dan Robert S. juga menunjukkan: Teknologi bangsa Mesir kuno tidak mungkin dapat mengukir skala yang sedemikian besar di atas sebuah batu raksasa, produk seni yang tekniknya rumit.
Jika diamati secara keseluruhan, kita bisa menyimpulkan secara logis, bahwa pada masa purbakala, di atas tanah Mesir, pernah ada sebuah budaya yang sangat maju, namun karena adanya pergeseran lempengan bumi, daratan batu tenggelam di lautan, dan budaya yang sangat purba pada waktu itu akhirnya disingkirkan, meninggalkan piramida dan Sphinx dengan menggunakan teknologi bangunan yang sempurna.
Dalam jangka waktu yang panjang di dasar lautan, piramida raksasa dan Sphinx mengalami rendaman air dan pengikisan dalam waktu yang panjang, adalah penyebab langsung yang mengakibatkan erosi yang parah terhadap Sphinx. Karena bahan bangunan piramida raksasa Jazirah adalah hasil teknologi manusia yang tidak diketahui orang sekarang, kemampuan erosi tahan airnya jauh melampaui batu alam, sedangkan Sphinx terukir dengan keseluruhan batu alam, mungkin ini penyebab yang nyata piramida raksasa dikikis oleh air laut yang tidak tampak dari permukaan.
Keterangan gambar: Sphinx yang bertetangga dekat dengan piramida raksasa kelihatannya sangat kuno. Para ilmuwan memastikan bahwa dari badannya, saluran dan irigasi yang seperti dikikis air, ia pernah mengalami sebagian cuaca yang lembab, karenanya memperkirakan bahwa ia sangat berkemungkinan telah ada sebelum 10 ribu tahun silam. (Lisensi gambar: Xu Xiaoqian)
Sumber: Inspiration Civilization Prehistoric for Mankind

Mitos & Fakta Segitiga Bermuda

Bagi Anda yang gemar kisah misteri, pasti mengenal Segitiga Bermuda. Wilayah laut di selatan Amerika Serikat dengan titik sudut Miami (di Florida), Puerto Rico (Jamaica), dan Bermuda ini, telah berabad-abad menyimpan kisah yang tak terpecahkan. Misteri demi misteri bahkan telah dicatat oleh pengelana samudera macam Christopher Columbus.
Lebih dari itu, tak jauh dari kapal, pada suatu malam tiba-tiba para awaknya dikejutkan dengan munculnya bola-bola api yang terjun begitu saja ke dalam laut. Mereka juga menyaksikan lintasan cahaya dari arah ufuk yang kemudian menghilang begitu saja.
Begitulah Segitiga Bermuda. Di wilayah ini, indera keenam memang seperti dihantui ’suasana’ yang tak biasa. Namun begitu rombongan Columbus masih terbilang beruntung, karena hanya disuguhi ‘pertunjukkan’. Lain dengan pelintas-pelintas yang lain.


Di lain kisah, Segitiga Bermuda juga telah membungkam puluhan pesawat yang melintasinya. Peristiwa terbesar yang kemudian terkuak sekitar 1990 lalu adalah raibnya iring-iringan lima Grumman TBF Avenger AL AS yang tengah berpatroli melintas wilayah laut ini pada siang hari 5 Desember 1945. Setelah sekitar dua jam penerbangan komandan penerbangan melapor, bahwa dirinya dan anak buahnya seperti mengalami disorientasi. Beberapa menit kemudian kelima TBF Avenger ini pun raib tanpa sempat memberi sinyal SOS.
Hilangnya C-119
Kisah ajaib lainnya adalah hilangnya pesawat transpor C-119 Flying Boxcar pada 7 Juni 1965. Pesawat tambun mesin ganda milik AU AS bermuatan kargo ini, hari itu pukul 7.47 lepas landas dari Lanud Homestead. Pesawat dengan 10 awak ini terbang menuju Lapangan Terbang Grand Turk, Bahama, dan diharapkan mendarat pukul 11.23.

Pesawat ini sebenarnya hampir menuntaskan perjalanannya. Hal ini diketahui dari kontak radio yang masih terdengar hingga pukul 11. Sesungguhnya memang tak ada yang mencurigakan. Kerusakan teknis juga tak pernah dilaporkan. Tetapi Boxcar tak pernah sampai tujuan.
“Dalam kontak radio terakhir tak ada indikasi apa-apa bahwa pesawat tengah mengalami masalah. Namun setelah itu kami kehilangan jejaknya,” begitu ungkap juru bicara Penyelamat Pantai Miami. “Besar kemungkinan pesawat mengalami masalah kendali arah (steering trouble) hingga nyasar ke lain arah,” tambahnya.
“Benar-benar aneh. Sebuah pesawat terbang ke arah selatan Bahama dan hilang begitu saja tanpa jejak,” demikian komentar seorang veteran penerbang Perang Dunia II.
Banyak teori kemudian dihubung-hubungkan dengan segala kejadian di sana. Ada yang menyebut teori pelengkungan waktu, medan gravitasi terbalik, abrasi atmosfer, dan ada juga teori anomali magnetik-gravitasi. Selain itu ada juga yang mengaitkannya dengan fenomena gampa laut, serangan gelombang tidal, hingga lubang hitam (black-hole) yang hanya terjadi di angkasa luar sana. Aneh-aneh memang analisanya, namun tetap saja tak ada satu pun yang bisa menjelaskannya.
Hingga saat ini,telah banyak tenggapan-tanggapan atau teori-teori mengenai peristiwa-peristiwan aneh dan ghaib yang terjadi di kawasan tsb,diantaranya:

• Sebuah Argumen dari suatu Perusahaan Asuransi Kapal Laut

Perusahaan asuransi laut Lloyd’s of London menyatakan bahwa segitiga bermuda bukanlah lautan yang berbahaya dan sama seperti lautan biasa di seluruh dunia, asalkan tidak membawa angkutan melebihi ketentuan ketika melalui wilayah tersebut. Penjaga pantai mengkonfirmasi keputusan tersebut. Penjelasan tersebut dianggap masuk akal, ditambah dengan sejumlah pengamatan dan penyelidikan kasus.

• Teori Lorong Waktu

Menurut beberapa peneliti,mungkin dikawasan ini terdapat sebuah gangguan atmosfir di udara berupa lubang di langit.Ke lubang itulah pesawat terbang masuk tanpa sanggup untuk keluar lagi. Dari misteri “Lubang di Langit” ini membentuk sebuah teori tentang adanya semacam perhubungan antara dunia dengan dimensi lain. lubang di Langit itu dianggap semacam alat transportasi seperti tampak di film Star Trek. Ataukah bentuk Lubang di Langit itu UFO? Orang sering menghubungkan hilangnya pesawat kita dengan munculnya UFO.

• Blue Hole

Konon di dasar laut segitiga bermuda terdapat semacam lubang/gua dasar laut,dulu gua ini memang sungguh ada, tetapi setelahjaman es berlalu, gua ini tertutup.Arus didalamnya sangat kuat dan sering membuat pusaran yang berdaya hisap. banyak kapal-kapal kecil atau manusia yang terhisap ke dalam blue hole itu tanpa daya,dan anehnya kapal-kapal kecil yang terhisap itu akan muncul kembali ke permukaan laut selang beberapa lama.
Tapi yang menimbulkan pertanyaan ialah: Mungkinkah Blue Hole ini sanggup menelan
kapal raksasa ke dasar lautan?

• Gas Metana

Penjelasan lain dari beberapa peristiwa lenyapnya pesawat terbang dan kapal laut secara misterius adalah adanya gas methana di wilayah perairan tersebut. Teori ini dipublikasikan untuk pertama kali tahun 1981 oleh Badan Penyelidikan Geologi Amerika Serikat. Teori ini berhasil diuji coba di laboratorium dan hasilnya memuaskan beberapa orang tentang penjelasan yang masuk akal seputar misteri lenyapnya pesawat-pesawat dan kapal laut yang melintas di wilayah tersebut.

• Misteri Lidah Lautan

Kawasan Segitiga bermuda sering juga disebut sebagai Tongue of the Ocean atau Lidah Lautan.Lidah Lautan mempunyai jurang bawah laut (canyon).Ada beberapa peristiwa kecelakaan di sana. Tidak banyak yang belum diketahui tentang Segitiga Bermuda, sehingga orang menghubungkan misteri Segitiga Bermuda ini dengan misteri lainnya. Misalnya saja misteri Naga Laut yang pernah muncul di Tanjung Ann, Massachussets AS, pada bulan Agustus 1917.

• Misteri Makhluk Sargasso

Misteri lain yang masih belum terungkap adalah misteri Makhluk Laut Sargasso, yang bukan semata-mata khayalan. Di Lautan Sargasso,banyak kapal yang tak pernah sampai ke tujuannya dan terkubur di dasar laut. Di sana terhimpun kapal-kapal dari berbagai jaman, harta karun, mayat tulang belulang manusia. Luas Laut Misteri Sargasso ini 3650 km untuk panjang dan lebarnya 1825 km, dan di sekelilingnya mengalir arus yang kuat sekali, sehingga membentuk pusaran yang sangat luas yang berputar perlahan-lahan searah jarum jam.

• Angin Puting Beliung

Mungkin di area ini sering terjadi badai laut yang mungkin bisa membentuk suatu pusaran angin yang dapat menyebabkan hancurnya sebuah pesawat terbang karena terhempaskan.

• Beberapa Penjelasan Lain

Ada yang mengatakan Segitiga Bermuda disebabkan karena tempat tersebut merupakan pangkalan UFO sekelompok mahkluk luar angkasa/alien yang tidak mau diusik oleh manusia,sehingga kendaraan apapun yang melewati daerah teritorial tersebut akan terhisap dan diculik. Ada juga yang mengatakan bahwa penyebabnya dikarenakan oleh adanya sumber magnet terbesar di bumi yang tertanam di bawah Segitiga Bermuda,sehingga logam berton-tonpun dapat tertarik ke dalam. Dan bahkan ada yang mengatakan Segitiga Bermuda merupakan pusat bertemunya antara arus air dingin dengan arus air panas,sehingga akan mengakibatkan pusaran air yang besar/dasyat.
Berikut adalah bebrapa Kejadian-kejadian yang terjadi di Segitiga Bermuda:

• 1840 : HMS Rosalie
• 1872 : The Mary Celeste, salah satu misteri terbesar lenyapnya beberapa kapal di segitiga bermuda
• 1909 : The Spray
• 1917 : SS Timandra
• 1918 : USS Cyclops (AC-4) lenyap di laut berbadai, namun sebelum berangkat menara pengawas mengatakan bahwa lautan tenang sekali, tidak mungkin terjadi badai, sangat baik untuk pelayaran
• 1926 : SS Suduffco hilang dalam cuaca buruk
• 1938 : HMS Anglo Australian menghilang. Padahal laporan mengatakan cuaca hari itu sangat tenang
• 1945 : Penerbangan 19 menghilang
• 1952 : Pesawat British York transport lenyap dengan 33 penumpang
• 1962 : US Air Force KB-50, sebuah kapal tanker, lenyap
• 1970 : Kapal barang Perancis, Milton Latrides lenyap; berlayar dari New Orleans menuju Cape Town.
• 1972 : Kapal Jerman, Anita (20.000 ton), menghilang dengan 32 kru
• 1976 : SS Sylvia L. Ossa lenyap dalam laut 140 mil sebelah barat Bermuda.
• 1978 : Douglas DC-3 Argosy Airlines Flight 902, menghilang setelah lepas landas dan kontak radio terputus
• 1980 : SS Poet; berlayar menuju Mesir, lenyap dalam badai
• 1995 : Kapal Jamanic K (dibuat tahun 1943) dilaporkan menghilang set
•  
• 1997 : Para pelayar menghilang dari kapal pesiar Jerman
• 1999 : Freighter Genesis hilang setelah berlayar dari Port of Spain menuju St Vincent.

Menyelami keindahan Raja Ampat

Pemandangan bawah laut di perairan Pulau Mansuar, Raja Ampat, Papua Barat. (Istimewa/Faces of Indonesia)

Sekali diving, menikmati pemandangan bawah laut, anda bisa bertambah umur satu jam...

Pemandangan Bawah Laut

Raja Ampat

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Tuntut Marchus Wanma Diperiksa

Jakarta (ANTARA News) - "Sekali diving, menikmati pemandangan bawah laut, anda bisa bertambah umur satu jam," kata pemandu selam Waiwo Dive Resort, Raja Ampat, Berto Rahawarin, memberitahu para calon penyelam yang berkunjung pada pertengahan Juli.

Konon, Berto mengatakan, keindahan alam bawah laut mampu membuat para penyelam melupakan segala permasalahan mereka di kota asal, membuat segala penat hilang, sehingga mampu menambah harapan hidup satu jam tiap kali menyelam.

Pernyataan Berto tersebut memang tak didukung hasil penelitian ilmiah. Tapi, menurut Berto, para penyelam yang dia pandu seringkali tidak merasa cukup dengan sekali menyelam dan sebisa mungkin mengulangi penyelaman mereka di lautan Raja Ampat yang kaya dengan ikan dan karang.

Meski nama Raja Ampat sebagai tempat menyelam dan snorkeling baru muncul dalam beberapa tahun terakhir namun kepopuleran kepulauan di kawasan lepas pantai Sorong, Papua Barat, itu dengan cepat mendunia karena keindahan alam bawah lautnya.

Sejak tahun 2003, wilayah kabupaten yang terdiri atas 610 pulau-pulau kecil itu mengalami pemekaran dan pemerintah daerah setempat, yang melihat animo besar para wisatawan untuk melakukan penyelaman, merintis upaya untuk menjadikan wilayah itu geopark.

Saat ini, untuk biaya perawatan terumbu karang, pemerintah Kabupaten Raja Ampat mengenakan biaya konservasi sebesar Rp500 ribu bagi setiap wisatawan asing dan Rp250 ribu bagi wisatawan nusantara.

Kepala Bidang Promosi Pariwisata Dinas Pariwisata Kabupaten Raja Ampat Klasina Rumbekwan mengatakan pemungutan biaya konservasi merupakan bagian dari upaya untuk melestarikan kekayaan alam Raja Ampat yang memang belum banyak dijamah penduduk sekitar.

"Pemberlakuan biaya masuk kawasan ini juga agar kita tahu berapa kunjungan wisatawan ke Raja Ampat. Ini ditetapkan lewat Pergub," ujar Klasina.

Menurut dia, sebagian dana dari pemungutan biaya konservasi masuk ke kas daerah dan sisanya dikelola oleh tim dan dibagi untuk pembiayaan konservasi alam sebesar 40 persen, pembiayaan program bagi masyarakat 40 persen dan untuk mengelola pusat informasi sebesar 20 persen.

Pengenaan biaya masuk itu, lanjut dia, juga dilakukan untuk menyaring wisatawan yang berkunjung, untuk mencegah kunjungan terlalu banyak wisatawan yang dikhawatirkan dapat menyebabkan kerusakan alam, terutama terumbu karang yang ada di sekitar pulau-pulau itu.

"Disini memang mahal. Kita mau eksklusif, nggak mau masal," katanya.

Kenyataannya, pengenaan biaya konservasi yang dianggap mahal tidak banyak menahan aliran kunjungan wisatawan ke wilayah Raja Ampat.

Tahun 2011, tercatat ada lebih dari 6.000 wisatawan yang berkunjung, hanya sekitar 1.000 orang atau 16 persen yang berasal dari tanah air, sisanya adalah wisatawan mancanegara.

Mayoritas wisatawan berkunjung ke Raja Ampat untuk melakukan penyelaman atau snorkeling.

Namun banyak juga yang hanya datang untuk menikmati pemandangan alam pantai berpasir putih yang melandai panjang dengan perairan jernih yang dihuni banyak ikan, atau sekedar trekking ke atas bukit untuk melihat pemandangan pulau-pulau kecil di wilayah perairan berwarna biru dan hijau.


Musim Penyelaman

Menurut Berto, bulan yang cocok untuk melakukan penyelaman adalah mulai bulan Oktober hingga April karena saat itu ikan banyak berkumpul dan ada yang singgah dalam migrasi antar samudera mereka seperti lumba-lumba.

"Di bulan Oktober juga ada festival Raja Ampat sehingga banyak turis yang datang pada bulan itu, tapi untuk diving masih bisa sampai bulan April," ujarnya.

Tarif untuk melakukan penyelaman dan penyewaan peralatan beragam di setiap hotel atau resort bervariasi. Sebagai gambaran di Waiwo Dive Resort biaya sewanya Rp550 ribu bagi wisatawan mancanegara dan Rp450 ribu bagi wisatawan dalam negeri.

Para penyelam biasanya akan dibawa ke lokasi-lokasi penyelaman yang biasanya tidak jauh dari hotel atau resort, hanya sekitar setengah jam perjalanan kapal, bahkan ada juga lokasi penyelaman yang berada persis di depan hotel seperti di Waiwo.

Beberapa spot penyelaman lain di Raja Ampat adalah Sonek Monde, kepulauan Pianemo, Manta Point di Arborek, Pulau Kelelawar atau di Kuburan Reef yang berlokasi di sekitar Pulau Mansuar.

Berto biasanya membawa penyelam pemula ke lokasi berkedalaman 5-10 meter dan penyelam mahir atau yang sudah memiliki lisensi selam ke lokasi berkedalaman 50 meter.

Pada kedalaman lima meter, para penyelam akan dimanjakan oleh pemandangan terumbu karang dan ikan-ikan permukaan yang tidak terlalu besar dan di kedalaman 8 meter ada penyu-penyu yang berenang bebas.

Di Kuburan Reef, hewan laut yang menunggu untuk menyapa para penyelam adalah penyu besar dan Wabegong atau hiu khas Papua.

Anggota tim Adira Beauty X-Pedition-Jelajah Nusantara, Tri Dofa Setiawan Manurung (30) yang pada etape terakhir ekspedisi mengunjungi Raja Ampat mengakui Raja Ampat istimewa dibandingkan dengan daerah lain di nusantara.

"Di sini airnya jernih sehingga pemandangan di bawah lautnya juga lebih bagus," ujar Tri Dofa yang memiliki julukan Dori sang Penjelajah.

Dibandingkan dengan jelajah nusantara yang dilakukan sebelumnya, Dori mengatakan Raja Ampat juga relatif memiliki cuaca yang cukup bersahabat dan udara yang lebih bersih sehingga menambah sensasi liburan yang dicari para wisatawan.

 STOP CHILD ABUSE !!!

Child abuse is the physical, sexual or emotional mistreatment or neglect of a child or children.^[1] In the United States, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and the Department for Children And Families (DCF) define child maltreatment as any act or series of acts of commission or omission by a parent or other caregiver that results in harm, potential for harm, or threat of harm to a child.^[2] Child abuse can occur in a child's home, or in the organizations, schools or communities the child interacts with. There are four major categories of child abuse: neglect, physical abuse, psychological or emotional abuse, and sexual abuse.
Different jurisdictions have developed their own definitions of what constitutes child abuse for the purposes of removing a child from his/her family and/or prosecuting a criminal charge. According to the Journal of Child Abuse and Neglect, child abuse is "any recent act or failure to act on the part of a parent or caretaker which results in death, serious physical or emotional harm, sexual abuse or exploitation, an act or failure to act which presents an imminent risk of serious harm".^[3]

Types

Child abuse can take several forms:^[4] The four main types are physical, sexual, psychological, and neglect.^[5]

Physical abuse

Physical abuse involves physical aggression directed at a child by an adult. Most nations with child-abuse laws consider the deliberate infliction of serious injuries, or actions that place the child at obvious risk of serious injury or death, to be illegal. Physical abuse is the intentional or non-accidental production of a physical injury. Bruises, scratches, burns, broken bones, lacerations, as well as repeated “mishaps,” and rough treatment that could cause physical injury, are the results of physical abuse. ^[6] Beyond this, there is considerable variation. The distinction between child discipline and abuse is often poorly defined. Cultural norms about what constitutes abuse vary widely: among professionals as well as the wider public, people do not agree on what behaviors constitute abuse.^[7] Some professionals claim that cultural norms that sanction physical punishment are one of the causes of child abuse, and have undertaken campaigns to redefine such norms.^[8][9][10]

Sexual abuse

Main articles: Child sexual abuse and child-on-child sexual abuse

Child sexual abuse (CSA) is a form of child abuse in which an adult or older adolescent abuses a child for sexual stimulation.^[11]Sexual abuse refers to the participation of a child in a sexual act aimed toward the physical gratification or the financial profit of the person committing the act. ^{[12] [13]} Forms of CSA include asking or pressuring a child to engage in sexual activities (regardless of the outcome), indecent exposure of the genitals to a child, displaying pornography to a child, actual sexual contact with a child, physical contact with the child's genitals, viewing of the child's genitalia without physical contact, or using a child to produce child pornography.^[11][14][15] Selling the sexual services of children may be viewed and treated as child abuse with services offered to the child rather than simple incarceration.^[16]
Effects of child sexual abuse include guilt and self-blame, flashbacks, nightmares, insomnia, fear of things associated with the abuse (including objects, smells, places, doctor's visits, etc.), self-esteem issues, sexual dysfunction, chronic pain, addiction, self-injury, suicidal ideation, somatic complaints, depression,^[17] post-traumatic stress disorder,^[18] anxiety,^[19] other mental illnesses (including borderline personality disorder^[20] and dissociative identity disorder,^[20] propensity to re-victimization in adulthood,^[21] bulimia nervosa,^[22] physical injury to the child, among other problems.^[23]
In the United States, approximately 15% to 25% of women and 5% to 15% of men were sexually abused when they were children.^{[24][25][26][27][28]} Most sexual abuse offenders are acquainted with their victims; approximately 30% are relatives of the child, most often brothers, fathers, mothers, uncles or cousins; around 60% are other acquaintances such as friends of the family, babysitters, or neighbours; strangers are the offenders in approximately 10% of child sexual abuse cases.^[24] In over one-third of cases, the perpetrator is also a minor.^[29]

Psychological/emotional abuse

Main article: Emotional abuse

Emotional abuse is defined as the production of psychological and social deficits in the growth of a child as a result of behavior such as loud yelling, coarse and rude attitude, inattention, harsh criticism, and denigration of the child's personality. ^[30] Other examples include name-calling, ridicule, degradation, destruction of personal belongings, torture or killing of a pet, excessive criticism, inappropriate or excessive demands, withholding communication, and routine labeling or humiliation.^[31]
Victims of emotional abuse may react by distancing themselves from the abuser, internalizing the abusive words, or fighting back by insulting the abuser. Emotional abuse can result in abnormal or disrupted attachment development, a tendency for victims to blame themselves (self-blame) for the abuse, learned helplessness, and overly passive behavior.^[31]

Neglect

Main article: Child neglect

Child neglect is the failure of a parent or other person with responsibility for the child to provide needed food, clothing, shelter, medical care, or supervision to the degree that the child's health, safety, and well-being are threatened with harm. Neglect is also a lack of attention from the people surrounding a child, and the non-provision of the relevant and adequate necessities for the child's survival, which would be a lacking in attention, love, and nurture.^[32] Some of the observable signs in a neglected child include: the child is frequently absent from school, begs or steals food or money, lacks needed medical and dental care, is consistently dirty, lacks sufficient clothing for the weather.^[33]
Neglected children may experience delays in physical and psychosocial development, possibly resulting in psychopathology and impaired neuropsychological functions including executive function, attention, processing speed, language, memory and social skills.^[34] Researchers investigating maltreated children have repeatedly found that neglected children in foster and adoptive populations manifest different emotional and behavioral reactions to regain lost or secure relationships and are frequently reported to have disorganized attachments and a need to control their environment. Such children are not likely to view caregivers as being a source of safety, and instead typically show an increase in aggressive and hyperactive behaviors suggest disrupt healthy or secure attachment with their adopted parents. These children have apparently learned to adapt to an abusive and inconsistent caregiver by becoming cautiously self-reliant, and are often described as glib, manipulative and disingenuous in their interactions with others as they move through childhood.^[35] Children who are victims of neglect have a more difficult time forming and maintaining relationships, such as romantic or friendship, later in life due to the lack of attachment they had in their earlier stages of life.

Prevalence

According to the (American) National Committee to Prevent Child Abuse, in 1997 neglect represented 54% of confirmed cases of child abuse, physical abuse 22%, sexual abuse 8%, emotional maltreatment 4%, and other forms of maltreatment 12%.^[36]
A UNICEF report on child wellbeing^[37] stated that the United States and the United Kingdom ranked lowest among industrial nations with respect to the wellbeing of children. It also found that child neglect and child abuse were far more common in single-parent families than in families where both parents are present.^{[citation needed]}
In the USA, neglect is defined as the failure to meet the basic needs of children including housing, clothing, food and access to medical care. Researchers found over 91,000 cases of neglect in one year (from October 2005 to 30 September 2006) using information from a database of cases verified by protective services agencies.^[2]
Neglect could also take the form of financial abuse by not buying the child adequate materials for survival.^[38]
The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services reports that for each year between 2000 and 2005, "female parents acting alone" were most likely to be perpetrators of child abuse.^[39]

Fatalities

A child abuse fatality occurs when a child's death is the result of abuse or neglect, or when abuse and/or neglect are contributing factors to a child's death. In the United States, 1,730 children died in 2008 due to factors related to abuse; this is a rate of 2 per 100,000 U.S. children.^[40] Family situations which place children at risk include moving, unemployment, having non-family members living in the household. A number of policies and programs have been put in place in the U.S. to try to better understand and to prevent child abuse fatalities, including: safe-haven laws, child fatality review teams, training for investigators, shaken baby syndrome prevention programs, and child abuse death laws which mandate harsher sentencing for taking the life of a child.^{[41][unreliable source?][verification needed]}

Causes

See also: Infanticide (zoology)

Child abuse is a complex phenomenon with multiple causes.^[42] Understanding the causes of abuse is crucial to addressing the problem of child abuse.^[43] Parents who physically abuse their spouses are more likely than others to physically abuse their children.^[44] However, it is impossible to know whether marital strife is a cause of child abuse, or if both the marital strife and the abuse are caused by tendencies in the abuser.^[44]
Children resulting from unintended pregnancies are more likely to be abused or neglected.^[45][46] In addition, unintended pregnancies are more likely than intended pregnancies to be associated with abusive relationships,^[47] and there is an increased risk of physical violence during pregnancy.^[48] They also result in poorer maternal mental health,^[48] and lower mother-child relationship quality.^[48]
Substance abuse can be a major contributing factor to child abuse. One U.S. study found that parents with documented substance abuse, most commonly alcohol, cocaine, and heroin, were much more likely to mistreat their children, and were also much more likely to reject court-ordered services and treatments.^[49] Another study found that over two-thirds of cases of child maltreatment involved parents with substance abuse problems. This study specifically found relationships between alcohol and physical abuse, and between cocaine and sexual abuse.^[50]
Unemployment and financial difficulties are associated with increased rates of child abuse.^[51] In 2009 CBS News reported that child abuse in the United States had increased during the economic recession. It gave the example of a father who had never been the primary care-taker of the children. Now that the father was in that role, the children began to come in with injuries.^[52]
A 1988 study of child murders in the US found that children are 100 times more often killed by a "non-biological parent (e.g. step-parent, co-habitee or boyfriend/girlfriend of a biological parent)" than by a biological parent.^[53] An evolutionary psychology explanation for this is that using resources in order to take care of another person's biological child is likely not a good strategy for increasing reproductive success.^[53] More generally, stepchildren have a much higher risk of being abused which is sometimes referred to as the Cinderella effect.
Psychologists conducted a study in the United States in 2010 which examined over 200 regular church attendees from eleven different denominations of Christianity, most of whom were educated, upper-middle class White Americans, found that extrinsic religious orientation was associated with a greater risk of physical child abuse. Those with a more extrinsic religious orientation who also adhered to greater social conformity were particularly more likely to share characteristics with physically abusive subjects. Subjects who adhered to Biblical literalism exhibited a higher potential of physical child abuse. Those who had a more intrinsic religious orientation were not found to be at a greater risk of child abuse, although they sometimes exhibited greater social conformity or a greater propensity for holding literal interpretations of the Bible. Approximately 85% of the study's subjects were parents.^[54]

Child abuse worldwide

Child abuse is an international phenomenon. Poverty and substance abuse are common widespread international issues, and no matter the location, show a similar trend in the correlation to child abuse.
Although these issues can likely contribute to child maltreatment, differences in cultural perspectives play a significant role in the treatment of children. In certain nations, the battle for equality within the sexes plays a large part in a child’s upbringing. During the Soviet period, there were conflicts regarding the traditional housewife versus the emphasis on equality within the sexes. Some women felt a considerable amount of pressure to carry out their motherly duties, obtaining an “authoritarian” parenting style, acting dominating and emotionally distant towards her children while overly involved in her own career. ^[55] Many were encouraged to use more firm and direct disciplinary methods, as well as be overbearing and overprotective of their children. ^[56]
Now that this Communist Era has ended, there are many positive changes being put into play. While there is a new openness and acceptance regarding parenting styles and close relationships with children, child abuse still remains a serious concern. Although it is now more publically recognized, it has certainly not cease to exist. While controlling parenting may be less of a concern, financial difficulty, unemployment, and substance abuse still remain to be dominating factors in child abuse throughout Eastern Europe. ^[57]
A study conducted by members from several Baltic and Eastern European countries, together with specialists from the United States, examined the causes of child abuse in the countries of Latvia, Lithuania, Macedonia and Moldova. In these countries, respectively, 33%, 42%, 18% and 43% of children reported at least one type of child abuse.^[58] According to their findings, there was a serious of correlations between the potential risk factors of parental employment status, alcohol abuse, and family size within the abuse ratings.^[59] In three of the four countries, parental substance abuse was considerably correlated with the presence of child abuse, and although it was a lower percentage, still showed a relationship in the fourth country (Moldova).^[60] Each country also showed a connection between the father not working outside of the home and either emotional or physical child abuse.^[61]
These cultural differences can be studied from many perspectives. Most importantly, overall parental behavior is genuinely different in various countries. Many may view child abuse, both emotional and physical, as socially acceptable. Each culture has their own “range of acceptability,” and what one may view as offensive, others may seem as tolerable. Behaviors that are normal to some may be viewed as abusive to others, all depending on the societal norms of that particular country.^[62]
Asian parenting perspectives, specifically, hold different ideals from American culture. Many have described their traditions as including physical and emotional closeness that ensures a lifelong bond between parent and child, as well as establishing parental authority and child obedience through harsh discipline.^[63] Balancing disciplinary responsibilities within parenting is common in many Asian cultures, including China, Japan, Singapore, Vietnam and Korea.^[64] To some cultures, forceful parenting may be seen as abuse, but in other societies such as these, the use of force is looked at as a reflection of parental devotion.^[65]
The differences in these cultural beliefs demonstrate the importance of examining all cross-cultural perspectives when studying the concept of child abuse.

Effects

There are strong associations between exposure to child abuse in all its forms and higher rates of many chronic conditions. The strongest evidence comes from the Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE's) series of studies which show correlations between exposure to abuse or neglect and higher rates in adulthood of chronic conditions, high-risk health behaviors and shortened lifespan.^[66] A recent publication, Hidden Costs in Health Care: The Economic Impact of Violence and Abuse,^[67] makes the case that such exposure represents a serious and costly public-health issue that should be addressed by the healthcare system. Child abuse is a major life stressor that has consequences involving the mental health of an adult but, the majority of studies examining the negative consequences of abuse have been focused on adolescences and young adults.^{[citation needed]} It has been identified that childhood sexual abuse is a risk factor for the development of substance-related problems during adolescence and adulthood.^{[citation needed]} The early experiences of child abuse can trigger the development of an internalizing disorder, such as anxiety and depression. For example, adults with a history of some form of child abuse, whether sexual abuse, physical abuse, or neglect, have more chances of developing depression than an adult who has never been abused.^{[citation needed]} Child abuse can also cause problems with the neurodevelopment of a child.^{[citation needed]} Research^{[by whom?]} shows that abused children often develop deficits with language, deregulation of mood, behaviour and also social/emotional disturbances. These risks are elevated when child abuse is combined with traumatic events and/or fetal alcohol exposure.^{[citation needed]} A big concern with researchers is the degree to which maltreated children grow up to be maltreating adults or if they exhibit social signs of abuse or neglect. Studies show that 90 percent of maltreating adults were maltreated as children in their life. When children were 2 studies show that 16 percent of 267 high risk mothers mistreated thir own children, to different effects.^[68] The first two years of a child's life is when parents invest the least in their children. Almost 7 million American infants go to child care services, like day care, and a majority of that care is poor. Serious consequences occur when young children are maltreated, including developmental issues.^[69] 16 percent of those 267 high risk mothers mistreat their two year old children in different ways. 55 percent of the children experienced physical abuse, 55 percent experienced neglect, 43 percent experienced hostile and rejecting parenting, and 43 percent experienced unavailable parenting.^[68]

Psychological effects

Children who have a history of neglect or physical abuse are at risk of developing psychiatric problems,^[70][71] or a disorganized attachment style.^[72][73][74] Disorganized attachment is associated with a number of developmental problems, including dissociative symptoms,^[75] as well as anxiety, depressive, and acting out symptoms.^[76][77] A study by Dante Cicchetti found that 80% of abused and maltreated infants exhibited symptoms of disorganized attachment.^[78][79] When some of these children become parents, especially if they suffer from posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), dissociative symptoms, and other sequelae of child abuse, they may encounter difficulty when faced with their infant and young children's needs and normative distress, which may in turn lead to adverse consequences for their child's social-emotional development.^[80][81] Despite these potential difficulties, psychosocial intervention can be effective, at least in some cases, in changing the ways maltreated parents think about their young children.^[82]
Victims of childhood abuse, it is claimed, also suffer from different types of physical health problems later in life. Some reportedly suffer from some type of chronic head, abdominal, pelvic, or muscular pain with no identifiable reason.^[83] Even though the majority of childhood abuse victims know or believe that their abuse is, or can be, the cause of different health problems in their adult life, for the great majority their abuse was not directly associated with those problems, indicating that sufferers were most likely diagnosed with other possible causes for their health problems, instead of their childhood abuse.^[83] One long-term study found that up to 80% of abused people had at least one psychiatric disorder at age 21, with problems including depression, anxiety, eating disorders, and suicide attempts.^[84]. One Canadian hospital found that between 36% and 76% of women mental health outpatients had been abused, as had 58% of women and 23% of men schizophrenic inpatients.^[85]
The effects of child abuse vary, depending on the type of abuse. A 2006 study^[which?] found that childhood emotional and sexual abuse were strongly related to adult depressive symptoms, while exposure to verbal abuse and witnessing of domestic violence had a moderately strong association, and physical abuse a moderate one. For depression, experiencing more than two kinds of abuse exerted synergetically stronger symptoms. Sexual abuse was particularly deleterious in its intrafamilial form, for symptoms of depression, anxiety, dissociation, and limbic irritability.^{[clarification needed]} Childhood verbal abuse had a stronger association with anger-hostility than any other type of abuse studied, and was second only to emotional abuse in its relationship with dissociative symptoms.^{[citation needed]} More generally, in the case of 23 of the 27 illnesses listed in the questionnaire of a French INSEE survey, some statistically significant correlations were found between repeated illness and family traumas encountered by the child before the age of 18 years.^[86] According to Georges Menahem, the French sociologist who found out these correlations by studying health inequalities, these relationships show that inequalities in illness and suffering are not only social. Health inequality also has its origins in the family, where it is associated with the degrees of lasting affective problems (lack of affection, parental discord, the prolonged absence of a parent, or a serious illness affecting either the mother or father) that individuals report having experienced in childhood.^{[citation needed]}

Physical effects

Rib fractures in an infant secondary to child abuse

Children who are physically abused are likely to receive bone fractures, particularly rib fractures,^[87] and may have a higher risk of developing cancer.^[88] Children who experience child abuse & neglect are 59% more likely to be arrested as juveniles, 28% more likely to be arrested as adults, and 30% more likely to commit violent crime.^[89]
The immediate physical effects of abuse or neglect can be relatively minor (bruises or cuts) or severe (broken bones, hemorrhage, or even death). In some cases the physical effects are temporary; however, the pain and suffering they cause a child should not be discounted. Meanwhile, the long-term impact of child abuse and neglect on physical health is just beginning to be explored. The long-term effects can be:

• Shaken baby syndrome. Shaking a baby is a common form of child abuse that often results in permanent neurological damage (80% of cases) or death (30% of cases).^[90] Damage results from intracranial hypertension (increased pressure in the skull) after bleeding in the brain, damage to the spinal cord and neck, and rib or bone fractures (Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, 2007).

• Impaired brain development. Child abuse and neglect have been shown, in some cases, to cause important regions of the brain to fail to form or grow properly, resulting in impaired development (De Bellis & Thomas, 2003). These alterations in brain maturation have long-term consequences for cognitive, language, and academic abilities (Watts-English, Fortson, Gibler, Hooper, & De Bellis, 2006). NSCAW found more than three-quarters of foster children between 1 and 2 years of age to be at medium to high risk for problems with brain development, as opposed to less than half of children in a control sample (ACF/OPRE, 2004a).

• Poor physical health. Several studies have shown a relationship between various forms of household dysfunction (including childhood abuse) and poor health (Flaherty et al., 2006; Felitti, 2002). Adults who experienced abuse or neglect during childhood are more likely to suffer from physical ailments such as allergies, arthritis, asthma, bronchitis, high blood pressure, and ulcers (Springer, Sheridan, Kuo, & Carnes, 2007).^[91]

On the other hand, there are some children who are raised in child abuse, but who manage to do unexpectedly well later in life regarding the preconditions. Such children have been termed dandelion children, as inspired from the way that dandelions seem to prosper irrespective of soil, sun, drought, or rain.^[92] Such children (or currently grown-ups) are of high interest in finding factors that mitigate the effects of child abuse.

Prevention

A support-group structure is needed to reinforce parenting skills and closely monitor the child's well-being. Visiting home nurse or social-worker visits are also required to observe and evaluate the progress of the child and his/her caretaking situation. The support-group structure and visiting home nurse or social-worker visits are not mutually exclusive. Many studies have demonstrated that the two measures must be coupled together for the best possible outcome.^[93] Children's school programs regarding "good touch...bad touch" can provide children with a forum in which to role-play and learn to avoid potentially harmful scenarios. Unintended conception increases the risk of subsequent child abuse, and large family size increases the risk of child neglect.^[46] Thus a comprehensive study for the National Academy of Sciences concluded that affordable contraceptive services should form the basis for child abuse prevention.^[46][94] "The starting point for effective child abuse programming is pregnancy planning," according to an analysis for US Surgeon General C. Everett Koop.^[46][95]
April has been designated Child Abuse Prevention Month in the United States since 1983.^[96] U.S. President Barack Obama continued that tradition by declaring April 2009 Child Abuse Prevention Month.^[97] One way the Federal government of the United States provides funding for child-abuse prevention is through Community-Based Grants for the Prevention of Child Abuse and Neglect (CBCAP).^[98]
Resources for child-protection services are sometimes limited. According to Hosin (2007), "a considerable number of traumatized abused children do not gain access to protective child-protection strategies."^[99] Briere (1992) argues that only when "lower-level violence" of children ceases to be culturally tolerated will there be changes in the victimization and police protection of children.^[100]

Treatment

A number of treatments are available to victims of child abuse.^[101] Trauma-focused cognitive behavioral therapy, first developed to treat sexually abused children, is now used for victims of any kind of trauma. It targets trauma-related symptoms in children including post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), clinical depression and anxiety. It also includes a component for non-offending parents. Several studies have found that sexually abused children undergoing TF-CBT improved more than children undergoing certain other therapies. Data on the effects of TF-CBT for children who experienced only non-sexual abuse was not available as of 2006.^[101] The purpose of dealing with the thoughts and feelings associated with the trauma is to deal with nightmares, flashbacks and other intrusive experiences that might be spontaneously brought on by any number of discriminative stimuli in the environment or in the individual’s brain. This would aid the individual in becoming less fearful of specific stimuli that would arouse debilitating fear, anger, sadness or other negative emotion.In other words, the individual would have some control or mastery over those emotions. ^[102]
Abuse-focused cognitive behavioral therapy was designed for children who have experienced physical abuse. It targets externalizing behaviors and strengthens prosocial behaviors. Offending parents are included in the treatment, to improve parenting skills/practices. It is supported by one randomized study.^[101]
Rational Cognitive Emotive Behavior Therapy consists of ten distinct but interdependent steps. These steps fall into one of three theoretical orientations (i.e., rational or solution focused, cognitive emotive, and behavioral) and are intended to provide abused children and their adoptive parents with positive behavior change, corrective interpersonal skills, and greater control over themselves and their relationships. They are: 1) determining and normalizing thinking and behaving, 2) evaluating language, 3) shifting attention away from problem talk 4) describing times when the attachment problem isn’t happening, 5) focusing on how family members “successfully” solve problematic attachment behavior; 6) acknowledging “unpleasant emotions” (i.e., angry, sad, scared) underlying negative interactional patterns, 7) identifying antecedents (controlling conditions) and associated negative cognitive emotive connections in behavior (reciprocal role of thought and emotion in behavioral causation), 8) encouraging previously abused children to experience or “own” negative thoughts and associated aversive emotional feelings, 9) modeling and rewarding positive behavior change (with themselves and in relationships), and 10) encouraging and rewarding thinking and behaving differently. This type of therapy shifts victims thoughts away from the bad and changes their behavior. ^[103]
Child-parent psychotherapy was designed to improve the child-parent relationship following the experience of domestic violence. It targets trauma-related symptoms in infants, toddlers, and preschoolers, including PTSD, aggression, defiance, and anxiety. It is supported by two studies of one sample.^[101]
Other forms of treatment include group therapy, play therapy, and art therapy. Each of these types of treatment can be used to better assist the client, depending on the form of abuse they have experienced. Play therapy and art therapy are ways to get children more comfortable with therapy by working on something that they enjoy (coloring, drawing, painting, etc.). The design of a child's artwork can be a symbolic representation of what they are feeling, relationships with friends or family, and more. Being able to discuss and analyze a child's artwork can allow a professional to get a better insight of the child.^[104]
Seeing a therapist is the first step on the process to recovery.Therapy is the art and science of helping children make sense of their feelings, thoughts, and behavior and learn how to control their behavior and improve interactions with others.The therapist has an important role in helping a child recover from the effects of abuse and neglect. The therapist serves a number of functions, including, helping the child address issues related to abuse and neglect, serving as a model for appropriate adult­child relationships, working to improve family relationships, and supporting positive and productive peer relationships and support systems. ^[105] After a therapist has assessed a victim they can begin to plan the patients specific treatment that is best for them.

Ethics

One of the most challenging ethical dilemmas arising from child abuse relates to the parental rights of abusive parents or caretakers with regard to their children, particularly in medical settings.^[106] In the United States, the 2008 New Hampshire case of Andrew Bedner drew attention to this legal and moral conundrum. Bedner, accused of severely injuring his infant daughter, sued for the right to determine whether or not she remain on life support; keeping her alive, which would have prevented a murder charge, created a motive for Bedner to act that conflicted with the apparent interests of his child.^{[106][107][108]} Bioethicists Jacob M. Appel and Thaddeus Mason Pope recently argued, in separate articles, that such cases justify the replacement of the accused parent with an alternative decision-maker.^[106][109]
Child abuse also poses ethical concerns related to confidentiality, as victims may be physically or psychologically unable to report abuse to authorities. Accordingly, many jurisdictions and professional bodies have made exceptions to standard requirements for confidentiality and legal privileges in instances of child abuse. Medical professionals, including doctors, therapists, and other mental health workers typically owe a duty of confidentiality to their patients and clients, either by law and/or the standards of professional ethics, and cannot disclose personal information without the consent of the individual concerned. This duty conflicts with an ethical obligation to protect children from preventable harm. Accordingly, confidentiality is often waived when these professionals have a good faith suspicion that child abuse or neglect has occurred or is likely to occur and make a report to local child protection authorities. This exception allows professionals to breach confidentiality and make a report even when the child or his/her parent or guardian has specifically instructed to the contrary. Child abuse is also a common exception to Physician–patient privilege: a medical professional may be called upon to testify in court as to otherwise privileged evidence about suspected child abuse despite the wishes of the child and his/her family.^[110]

Organizations

There are organizations at national, state, and county levels in the United States that provide community leadership in preventing child abuse and neglect. The National Alliance of Children's Trust Funds and Prevent Child Abuse America are two national organizations with member organizations at the state level.
Many investigations into child abuse are handled on the local level by Child Advocacy Centers. Started over 25 years ago at what is now known as the National Children's Advocacy Center^[111] in Huntsville, Alabama by District Attorney Robert "Bud" Cramer these multi-disciplinary teams have met to coordinate their efforts so that cases of child abuse can be investigated quickly and efficiently, ultimately reducing trauma to the child and garnering better convictions.^[112][113] These Child Advocacy Centers (known as CACs) have standards set by the National Children's Alliance.^[114]
Other organizations focus on specific prevention strategies. The National Center on Shaken Baby Syndrome focuses its efforts on the specific issue of preventing child abuse that is manifested as shaken baby syndrome. Mandated reporter training is a program used to prevent ongoing child abuse.
NICHD, also known as the National Institute of Child Health & Human Development is a broad organization, but helps victims of child abuse through one of its branches. Through the Child Development and Behavior (CDB) Branch, NICHD raises awareness efforts by supporting research projects to better understand the short- and long-term impacts of child abuse and neglect. They provide programs and observe National Child Abuse Prevention Month every April since 1984. The Children’s Bureau leads activities for the Month, including the release of updated statistics about child abuse and neglect, candlelight vigils, and fundraisers to support prevention activities and treatment for victims. The Bureau also sponsors a “Blue Ribbon Campaign,” in which people wear blue ribbons in memory of children who have died from abuse, or in honor of individuals and organizations that have taken important steps to prevent child abuse and neglect. ^[115]